Investigation of the feasibility and efficacy of a fully immersive virtual reality-based memory training paradigm on memory performance in healthy controls and patients with mood or schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

Authors

Andreas Jespersen, Rebecca Lachmann, Bjørn Nordseth, Johannes Sivesgaard, Lars Christiansen, Kamilla Woznica Miskowiak

Published in

Nordic journal of psychiatry. Pages 1-9. Oct 19, 2025. Epub Oct 19, 2025.

Abstract

Cognitive impairments, including difficulties with learning and memory, are common in mood disorders (MD) and schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD), yet cognitive remediation interventions often show limited transfer of improvements to functioning. Fully immersive virtual reality (VR) offers an engaging and ecologically valid cognitive training platform. This study explored the efficacy and feasibility of a one-hour VR-based memory training session utilising the Method of Loci (MoL) for improving memory and self-efficacy in patients with MD or SSD and healthy controls (HC).
Patients with MD or SSD (n = 20) and HC (HCVR, n = 20) trained MoL memory encoding using a novel VR paradigm, while another HC group (n = 20) used a traditional flashcard-based encoding method. All participants encoded the 50 U.S. states. Memory recall was assessed pre-training, post-training, and one week later. Patients completed self-efficacy questionnaires pre- and post-training and evaluated training engagement and usefulness.
VR-based MoL training significantly improved recall of the 50 U.S. states in patients (pre: 11.65 ± 7.81; post: 33.80 ± 9.35, t = -10.06, p < .001) and HCVR (pre: 20.35 ± 9.41; post: 40.40 ± 5.80, t = -11.78, p < .001), with effects maintained at one-week follow-up. VR-based training outperformed traditional encoding in HC (F(2,76) = 4.17, p = .02, ηp² = .09). Patients reported higher post-training memory self-efficacy and rated the training as highly engaging and useful.
A single VR-based MoL session led to improved memory and self-efficacy in patients with MD or SSD, providing a stepping stone to show patients they can enhance memory using simple mnemonic techniques. This approach may encourage sustained memory training in daily life.

PMID:
41110109
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 20 Oct 2025.

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