Holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency: pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and research prospects.

Authors

Ji ZeZhao, Abduxukur Ablimit

Published in

European journal of pediatrics. Volume 185. Issue 7. Jun 22, 2026. Epub Jun 22, 2026.

Abstract

Holocarboxylase Synthetase Deficiency (HLCSD) is a rare autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism caused by biallelic mutations in the HLCS gene. The encoded enzyme, holocarboxylase synthetase (HLCS), plays a critical role in biotin metabolism by activating five essential carboxylases, including pyruvate carboxylase (PC) and propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC), thereby regulating key processes such as gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and branched-chain amino acid catabolism [1, 14]. HLCS dysfunction leads to the accumulation of toxic metabolites (e.g., 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid, methylcitric acid), resulting in severe manifestations like metabolic acidosis and hyperammonemia [6]. This review systematically consolidates current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms, clinical spectrum, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic strategies for HLCSD. It critically addresses core controversies, including genotype-phenotype correlations and variability in biotin treatment response, and proposes a multidimensional "gene-enzyme activity-metabolic phenotype-treatment response" framework. Studies confirm that early diagnosis via newborn screening, coupled with standardized biotin supplementation, achieves biochemical normalization and clinical symptom resolution in over 85% of patients and reduces the risk of neurological sequelae [10, 33, 35]. However, biotin-unresponsive cases and rare phenotypes present ongoing diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, necessitating further exploration of novel interventions to advance the precision medicine approach for HLCSD. What is Known: • Holocarboxylase synthetase defi ciency (HLCSD) is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder caused by HLCSbiallelic mutations, and biotin supplementation is the mainstream treatment for most patients. • Distinct population-specifi c HLCS mutation hotspots exist, and residual enzyme activity is closely correlated with disease severity and age of onset. What is New: • A multidimensional framework of gene-enzyme activity-metabolic phenotype-treatment response was proposed tointerpret phenotypic heterogeneity and variable biotin responsiveness in HLCSD. • This review systematically summarized rare clinical phenotypes, diagnostic pitfalls, emerging detection technologies and novel therapeutic directions including gene therapy and epigenetic intervention.

PMID:
42324336
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 22 Jun 2026.

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