The Effectiveness of an OPTIMAL Theory-Based Training Program on Throwing Skill Learning in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Authors

Leila Jamshidi, Esmaeel Saemi, Mohammadreza Doustan, Thomas Simpson

Published in

Physical & occupational therapy in pediatrics. Pages 1-21. Jul 07, 2026. Epub Jul 07, 2026.

Abstract

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is often associated with motor challenges, particularly deficits in object-control skills such as overarm throwing, catching, and kicking. According to the OPTIMAL theory, the combination of three factors of autonomy support, enhanced expectancy and external focus of attention, can provide optimal conditions for motor learning and performance. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a training program based on this theory on motor learning and performance of children with ASD.
In this randomized controlled experimental study, 30 children with ASD aged 6 to 11 years were recruited using convenience sampling and then randomly assigned to two experimental (n = 15) and control groups (n = 15) to practice an overarm throwing task. The experimental group received a training protocol based on the OPTIMAL theory including instructions of autonomy support (self-controlled practice), enhanced expectancy (positive normative feedback) and external focus of attention in 5 training blocks (60 trials). The control group received the same number of sessions and trials without the OPTIMAL theory-based interventions. Assessments included a pretest (12 trials), practice phase, and short-term (24 h later; 12 trials) and long-term (72 h later; 12 trials) retention tests.
The results showed that the OPTIMAL group performed significantly better than the control group in all stages of the practice phase (p = 0.032; η_p²= 0.15; 95% CI = (0.61, 12.73); mean difference = 6.67); short-term (p = 0.019; η_p²= 0.18; 95% CI = (1.27, 13.02); mean difference = 7.15) as well as long-term retention tests (p = 0.023; η_p² = 0.17; 95% CI = (0.85, 10.54); mean difference = 5.70).
The findings of the current study indicated that the OPTIMAL group achieved better performance and retention outcomes than the control group. However, due to the lack of direct measurement of the motivational constructs, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions about the underlying mechanisms of this effect. Therefore, the present findings should be interpreted as supportive, but not confirmatory, evidence for the OPTIMAL theory.

PMID:
42411300
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 07 Jul 2026.

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