Authors
Xiaohan Fan, Hengzhi Deng, Jia Yang Ng, Ahmad Amirul Hazim Bin Ab Aziz, Mohamed Nashrudin Bin Naharudin
Published in
Frontiers in physiology. Volume 17. Pages 1834757. Epub Jul 09, 2026.
Abstract
Olfactory stimuli may alter appetite, affective responses, and exercise performance through psychobiological processes. However, whether odor-induced changes in appetite and pleasantness translate into measurable improvements in resistance exercise performance remains unclear. This exploratory study investigated whether exposure to chocolate-related odors alters appetite perception, odor pleasantness, and resistance exercise capacity in moderately trained men.
Twenty-three participants completed a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial with three odor conditions presented as freshly prepared liquid stimuli: 90% dark chocolate, 60% milk chocolate, and a water-based control. Appetite perception and odor pleasantness were assessed using 100-mm visual analog scales, and perceived exertion was assessed using the Borg CR10 scale. Ratings were obtained at baseline and after odor exposure. Participants then performed repeated 10-repetition leg-extension sets at 80% of 10RM to volitional exhaustion with 3.5-min rest intervals. Odors were presented before each set, followed by assessments of appetite, pleasantness, and ratings of perceived exertion.
Condition significantly affected total repetitions (Wald χ²(2) = 71.15, p < 0.01) and total sets (Wald χ²(2) = 21.27, p < 0.01). Total repetitions were greater with 90% dark chocolate than with control (+18, 95% CI 13.8 to 22.1, p < 0.01) and greater with 60% milk chocolate than with control (+9, p < 0.01). Ratings of perceived exertion increased across sets (p < 0.01) but did not differ between conditions. Before exercise, 90% dark chocolate reduced appetite-related ratings, whereas 60% milk chocolate increased odor pleasantness.
These findings indicate that chocolate-related odors can modulate appetite and hedonic responses while increasing resistance-exercise volume, without clear increases in post-set perceived exertion. Chocolate-related odors may offer a non-nutritive approach to support fasted resistance exercise, although further work is needed to confirm the mechanisms and generalizability of these effects.
PMID:
42495704
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 24 Jul 2026.
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