Authors
Kaycee N Moyer, João Brandão, Hugues Beaufrère, Andrea Sanchez, Julianne E McCready
Published in
American journal of veterinary research. Pages 1-9. Aug 06, 2026. Epub Aug 06, 2026.
Abstract
To evaluate the effects of atropine and glycopyrrolate on the heart rate (HR) of Sonoran Desert toads (Incilius alvarius).
In part 1, toads received 0.1 mg/kg atropine IM, 0.025 mg/kg glycopyrrolate IM, 0.05 mg/kg glycopyrrolate IM, saline, or negative control in a randomized crossover study. Heart rate was monitored at baseline and 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, and 60 minutes. In part 2, toads received 10 mg/kg alfaxalone IM followed by 0.05 mg/kg glycopyrrolate or saline. Heart rate was monitored at baseline and 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, and 120 minutes.
In part 1 (n = 19), all 3 anticholinergic protocols significantly increased the HR between 3 and 15 minutes versus both controls. Atropine significantly increased the HR versus saline between 3 and 30 minutes. Both glycopyrrolate doses significantly increased the HR versus saline at 60 minutes. In part 2 (n = 10), glycopyrrolate significantly increased the HR versus saline at 10 minutes (mean HR difference 6.8 beats/min, SE of the difference 1.467 [95% CI, 1.024 to 12.58]).
Atropine and glycopyrrolate significantly increased the HR in conscious toads, with glycopyrrolate having longer efficacy. The effective period of glycopyrrolate was briefer in alfaxalone-sedated toads.
Performing safe, effective anesthesia can be challenging in amphibians given their unique physiology. Anticholinergic drugs are commonly used in veterinary medicine to address anesthesia-induced bradycardia. Additional studies are indicated to further evaluate the clinical efficacy of anticholinergics in amphibians.
PMID:
42567190
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 08 Aug 2026.
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