Authors
An initial assessment of absorbed gamma dose rates was conducted at around 30 monitoring locations situated within specific residential structures in Shaqlawa, Iraq. This represents the first instance of conducting such measures within this particular environment. A Geiger-Müller digital survey meter was used to quantify the gamma exposure at each monitoring station, 1 meter above ground. Additionally, a GPS device was employed to correctly capture the coordinates. The average absorbed gamma dose rates observed were 0.123 and 0.117 for indoor and outdoor environments, respectively, while the average annual effective doses for these areas were found to be 0.864 mSv.y-1 and 0.205 mSv.y-1, respectively. The findings indicate that both the indoor and outdoor gamma dose rates in Shaqlawa are approximately twice the global average values reported by UNSCEAR, suggesting elevated natural background radiation exposure in the area. Additionally, the excess lifetime cancer risk was estimated at 3.74×10−3, which is considerably higher than the global average of 0.29×10−3. These results highlight a potential radiological health concern for residents and emphasize the need for continuous environmental radiation monitoring and further investigation of radionuclide sources in building materials and soils.
Published in
Nexus of Advanced Environmental Research. Volume 2. Issue 1. Pages 163-172. Epub Feb 23, 2026.
Abstract
An initial assessment of absorbed gamma dose rates was conducted at around 30 monitoring locations situated within specific residential structures in Shaqlawa, Iraq. This represents the first instance of conducting such measures within this particular environment. A Geiger-Müller digital survey meter was used to quantify the gamma exposure at each monitoring station, 1 meter above ground. Additionally, a GPS device was employed to correctly capture the coordinates. The average absorbed gamma dose rates observed were 0.123 and 0.117 for indoor and outdoor environments, respectively, while the average annual effective doses for these areas were found to be 0.864 mSv.y-1 and 0.205 mSv.y-1, respectively. The findings indicate that both the indoor and outdoor gamma dose rates in Shaqlawa are approximately twice the global average values reported by UNSCEAR, suggesting elevated natural background radiation exposure in the area. Additionally, the excess lifetime cancer risk was estimated at 3.74×10−3, which is considerably higher than the global average of 0.29×10−3. These results highlight a potential radiological health concern for residents and emphasize the need for continuous environmental radiation monitoring and further investigation of radionuclide sources in building materials and soils.
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Introduction
The global concern over gamma irradiation is a substantial issue that encompasses both indoor and outdoor environments.
Approximately 80% of the global population's cumulative radiation exposure originates from natural sources [1, 2]. The
evaluation of natural background radiation for radiation protection is a highly important topic within the field of health
physics [3]. Consequently, natural sources consistently expose individuals to ionizing radiation [4, 5]. In addition to naturally
occurring radiation sources, anthropogenic radioactivity also directly elevates environmental radiation levels [6].
Anthropogenic radionuclides are a consequence of human activities involving the utilization of specific radioactive elements
for various purposes. These anthropogenic radionuclides are currently extending beyond the boundaries of monitored regions
[7, 8]. Due to their inherent radioactivity, terrestrial substances like water, soil, construction materials, and coal have the
potential to rapidly elevate ambient radiation levels within a given vicinity [9]. The manner in which natural radiation spreads
through the atmosphere is affected by the topographic features [4].
According to scientific measurements [10], the natural radiation at sea level is recorded to be approximately 32 (nGyh-1
). In
contrast, the absorbed dosage rate in the external environment might range from 18 to 93 nSvh⁻¹, with an average value of
59 nSvh⁻¹. Malaysia recorded the highest outdoor dosage rate in Asia, while Hong Kong and Iran recorded the highest interior
dose rate. The typical values for radiation levels in both countries are 200 and 115 nSvh-1
, respectively. This indicates the
extensive utilization of stone or masonry materials in the construction of buildings within these regions [10]. Numerous
investigations pertaining to background radiation in the gamma field were carried out across various towns in Iraq [3, 11-
16]. All previously stated studies demonstrated that the average outdoor dose rates in Nineveh, Al-Twath, and Najaf exceed
the reported mean value [10].
The measurement of background radiation levels holds significant importance in establishing baseline data.
Radionuclides like 238U, 232Th, 40K, and various other isotopes emit gamma rays [17-19]. Of all forms of ionizing
radiation, gamma radiation possesses the highest degree of penetration, enabling it to effectively traverse the human
body [19, 20].
The geological structure of Shaqlawa City in Erbil Province in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq comprises sedimentary
rock formations such as limestone, black shale, and sandstone [21]. These formations may possess varying
concentrations of radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, and potassium-40. The city's nearness to tectonic
activity in the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt may promote the migration of radionuclides into soil and groundwater. This
has resulted in elevated radiation exposure thresholds for public health and safety [22]. People can be exposed to
natural radiation from NORMs in soil, quarried rocks, stone crushing sites, and building materials, either by touching
them or breathing in the 222Rn rays emitted from uranium in structures [23].
Despite its geological significance and growing urban development, there is a scarcity of investigations assessing
indoor and outdoor gamma radiation exposure in Shaqlawa. Therefore, the present study aims to measure the absorbed
gamma dose rates in selected residential locations, estimate the annual effective dose (AED) received by the
population, and evaluate the associated excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR). The findings provide baseline radiological
data for the region and support future environmental radiation monitoring programs.
Material and methods
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study Area
Shaqlawa is a historic city and a hill station in the Erbil Governorate in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Shaqlawa, a city of approximately 25,500 people, lies 51 km to the northeast of Erbil, at the bottom of Safeen mountain. Shaqlawa is situated between Safeen mountain and Sork Mountain, and sits 1066 m above sea level. Shaqlawa is a town located in the Erbil Governorate of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. It lies approximately 50 kilometers northeast of Erbil city and is situated at the foothills of the Zagros Mountains [21].
Fig. 1. The cartographic representation of Shaqlawa.
Table 1. Geographical position of the selected locations in Shaqlawa City
Location site
sample code
N (decimal)
E(decimal)
Khidr Girls' dormitory
1
36°24'35.94096
44°18'35.24436
Roz Girls' dormitory
2
36°24'19.37268
44°18'57.81672
Newly built building out of blocks
3
36°24'11.78928
44°19'38.1126
Lehat Cafe (Wooden Wall)
4
36°24'15.88788
44°19'56.21232
Crowded bizaar
5
36°24'9.53208
44°20'33.2358
Clay house
6
36°24'40.37041
44°20'34.51906
Shahidani Azadi Neighborhood
7
36°24'28.17576
44°19'3.95688
Boys' modern dormitory
8
36°24'45.8028
44°19'11.32932
Ayub Oil (Sandwich panel Wall)
9
36°24'59.6754
44°18'54.37044
Hafta bazar Market
10
36°25'2.85672
44°18'18.0522
Chicken Seller (PVC Wall)
11
36°24'55.70604
44°17'45.63708
Yaran Mosque
12
36°24'53.42616
44°17'53.25828
Zaytuna Restaurant
13
36°24'3.67992
44°19'28.0596
Fire Station
14
36°24'39.70129
44°18'33.17588
Shaqlawa Church
15
36°23'34.10412
44°20'47.31612
Sabirawa Neighborhood
16
36°24'5.80896
44°20'52.34784
Shaqlawa View Residential Community
17
36°24'19.46304
44°20'16.43964
Lolan Residential Community
18
36°24'10.25964
44°19'43.17096
house in Tamtam Neighborhood
19
36°23'59.85132
44°20'0.07152
Dangara Neighbourhood
20
36°23'55.2156
44°19'44.04864
Teahouse in bizaar
21
36°24'10.43928
44°20'40.72992
Bale Market from Shahidani Azadi Neighborhood
22
36°24'40.70582
44°18'32.01395
Barbershop from Azadi Neighborhood
23
36°24'41.03634
44°18'31.30370
Gulan Neighborhood
24
36°24'31.9284
44°18'20.45556
collage of education
25
36°24'41.4515
44°18'30.90452
shaqlawa hosoital
26
36°24'40.6308
44°18'31.4096
shaqlawa hospital next to x-ray room
27
36°24'40.6308
44°18'31.4096
hawcharkh Markets
28
36°24'40.4771
44°18'31.8748
nuts shops
29
36°24'40.2915
44°18'34.3222
phantasy castle
30
36°24'42.01855
44°18'29.29623
2.2. Instrumentation
Geographical coordinates were obtained using a GPS device in order to provide convenient referencing of each selected point for further research purposes. A random selection process was employed to choose residential buildings from each of the eighty local governments within the study area.
The absorbed dose radiation level in each area is determined by employing a portable Geiger-Muller counter equipped with a rate meter, namely the G-M survey meter (SOEKS 01M radiation detector - geiger counter New version). A large-area pancake-geometry Geiger-Müller tube with a 45-millimeter diameter and mica window makes up the Inspector. The device detects alpha and beta particles, as well as electromagnetic radiation like γ-rays and X-rays. The huge display measures count and dose rates in CPM and mR/hr, respectively. Germany Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory Calibrated G.M detector.
Fig. 3. 2. SOEKS 01M radiation detector - geiger counter New version
2.3. Measurements and Calculations
To monitor the absorbed dose rate, measurements were conducted at several locations. A digital Gaiger detector was used, positioned 1 meter above the ground surface and away from walls to minimize the influence of radiation emitted by soil or building materials. Each monitoring site was observed for a duration of 2 minutes. Similarly, the outdoor measurements were conducted using the same 30 location points. Each outdoor measurement was conducted at a minimum distance of six meters from the walls of adjacent buildings [24]. Two repetitions were conducted for each measurement, and the resulting average was used to represent the value for the specific location point. At each juncture, the associated geographic location was captured and documented using GPS technology [25].
The monitoring panel of the Gamma detector displayed the absorbed gamma dose rate (DR) in units of (µSv/h).
The calculation of the annual effective dosage (AED) is determined using the formula provided below [4].
The public setting has an outdoor occupancy factor (OF) of 0.2 and an indoor occupancy factor (OF) of 0.8 [26]. The occupancy factor (OF) refers to the proportion of time an individual allocates to a certain geographic area.
The formula provided below is utilized to compute the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) factor [10].
The variable AED represents the total annual effective dose, whereas DL denotes the duration of life for the general population of Iraqi. In 2015, the World Health Organization published a survey indicating that the mean life expectancy (LE) for individuals in Iraq was 70 years [27]. The risk factor for deadly cancer associated with exposure to RF radiation is measured in units per sievert. According to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the risk factor (RF) assigned to low-dose radiation stochastic effects is determined to be 0.057 for the general population [28].
Results
3. Results and discussion
Table 2 presents a summary of the average absorbed gamma dose rates, both indoors and outdoors, as well as the annual effective dose rates (AEDs) and the excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) associated with gamma background radiation in 30 locations within Shaqlawa City. Radionuclides found in both indoor and outdoor settings induce these effects. This comparison considers statistics from several works across multiple countries.
Table 2. Indoor and outdoor absorbed gamma dose rates, annual effective dosage, and ELCR for 30 sample sites.
Sample code
absorbed gamma dose rate (
Annual Effective Dose (AED) (mSv/y)
AED total
ELCR×10-3
Indoor
Outdoor
AED indoor
AED
outdoor
1
0.09
0.12
0.631
0.21
0.841
2.944
2
0.1
0.11
0.701
0.193
0.894
3.129
3
0.09
0.09
0.631
0.158
0.789
2.762
4
0.11
0.11
0.771
0.193
0.964
3.374
5
0.17
0.19
1.191
0.333
1.524
5.334
6
0.11
0.12
0.771
0.21
0.981
3.434
7
0.13
0.12
0.911
0.21
1.121
3.924
8
0.13
0.15
0.911
0.263
1.174
4.109
9
0.08
0.13
0.561
0.228
0.789
2.762
10
0.13
0.14
0.911
0.245
1.156
4.046
11
0.09
0.11
0.631
0.193
0.824
2.884
12
0.13
0.15
0.911
0.263
1.174
4.109
13
0.11
0.12
0.771
0.21
0.981
3.434
14
0.09
0.1
0.631
0.175
0.806
2.821
15
0.12
0.11
0.841
0.193
1.034
3.619
16
0.15
0.12
1.051
0.21
1.261
4.414
17
0.12
0.08
0.841
0.14
0.981
3.434
18
0.14
0.1
0.981
0.175
1.156
4.046
19
0.13
0.14
0.911
0.245
1.156
4.046
20
0.16
0.11
1.121
0.193
1.314
4.599
21
0.18
0.13
1.261
0.228
1.489
5.212
22
0.15
0.14
1.051
0.245
1.296
4.536
23
0.15
0.08
1.051
0.14
1.191
4.169
24
0.09
0.11
0.631
0.193
0.824
2.884
25
0.09
0.1
0.631
0.175
0.806
2.821
26
0.17
0.1
1.191
0.175
1.366
4.781
27
0.13
0.1
0.911
0.175
1.086
3.801
28
0.1
0.1
0.701
0.175
0.876
3.066
29
0.15
0.12
1.051
0.21
1.261
4.414
30
0.11
0.12
0.771
0.21
0.981
3.434
Table 2 and Figure 3 presents the gamma-absorbed dose rates for indoor and outdoor environments. The indoor gamma-absorbed dose rates were observed to range from 0.08 (Ayub Oil (Sandwich panel Wall)) to 0.18 (Teahouse in bizaar) µSv.h⁻¹, with an average value of 0.123 µSv.h⁻¹. The average absorbed gamma dose rate in indoor air is twice as high as the global average of 0.084 µSv/h⁻¹ [10]. The observed outcome, when contrasted with the data provided by UNSCEAR 2000 from various nations, which had an average of 84 nSv within the range of 20–200 nSv.h-1, exhibits a notable increase.
Fig. 3. Indoor and outdoor mean gamma dose rate in selected locations
In the same way, the study found that the outdoor absorbed gamma dose rate ranged from 0.08 µSv.h⁻¹ (according to Shaqlawa View Residential Community and Barbershop from Azadi Neighborhood) to 0.15 µSv.h⁻¹, with 0.117 µSv.h⁻¹ being the average. The mean outdoor absorbed gamma dose rate is approximately twice as high as the global average of 0.059 µSv. h-1.
The current study reveals that numerous geological factors, primarily the quantity of naturally occurring radionuclides in the nearby rocks and soils, influence the natural absorbed gamma dose rates in Shaqlawa City. Radioactive elements are prevalent in the Earth's crust, with their concentrations fluctuating based on the mineral composition of the underlying geology [29]. Regions abundant in uranium- and thorium-bearing minerals generally exhibit elevated gamma dose rates. The research sites, known for their significant natural radioactivity, demonstrated this pattern through their elevated absorbed gamma dose rate. Moreover, the Zhian location (S6) recorded the highest absorbed gamma dose rate in indoor air due to the use of specific construction materials like granite in walls and earth surfaces with poor ventilation. These materials contain elevated concentrations of these radionuclides, leading to increased indoor gamma radiation levels (Othman et al.,2023[30]). In some areas of this inquiry, ventilation systems and gamma radiation absorption are indirect factors. The current analysis demonstrates that in many places, the increased absorbed dosage rate can be ascribed to poor ventilation, which largely affects indoor air quality by lowering radon gas levels, which are a major source of indoor radiation exposure. Radon decay produces gamma-emitting progeny; therefore, proper ventilation can reduce gamma exposure rates indoors by preventing radon buildup [31, 32].
We observed that indoor absorbed dose rates exceeded those in the outdoor environment, except for some locations. The elevated absorbed dose rate in indoor environments mostly relies on the use of rocks and construction materials in buildings. These materials typically exhibit high levels of natural radionuclides, such as 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K (Gholami et al., 2011, Rangaswamy et al., 2015). Adding gneissic granites, ceramics, soil, and other decorative stones to walls and floors, along with buildings that don't have enough airflow, raises both the concentration of radon and the concentration of its daughter gas. As a result, this phenomenon leads to an increase in the absorbed dosage of gamma radiation ([33].
The annual effective dose (AED) for indoor exposures is shown in Figure 4. It ranges from 0.561 mSv.y-1 at the Ayub Oil (Sandwich panel Wall) location to 1.261 mSv.y-1 at the Teahouse in bizaar location, with 0.864 mSv.y-1 being the average. In terms of outdoor exposure, the annual effective dose (AED) varies between 0.14 mSv/year (at the Shaqlawa View Residential Community and Barbershop from Azadi Neighborhood locations) and 0.263 mSv.y-1 (at the Yaran Mosque location), with an average AED of 0.205 mSv.y-1. The study shows that the total average annual effective doses are higher than the global average annual effective dose for background radiation. The average annual effective doses for outdoor radiation are 0.205 mSv.y-1, and indoor radiation is 0.864 mSv.y-1, for a total of 1.07 mSv.y-1. The global average annual effective dose for normal background radiation is reported as 0.072 mSv (outdoor) and 0.41 mSv.y-1 (indoor), with a total average value of 0.48 mSv.y-1, respectively [10].
Fig. 4. Indoor and outdoor annual effective dose in selected locations
The observed average value of 1.07 mSv is higher than the reported values of other countries worldwide. The average annual effective dose of ionizing radiation in various regions is as follows: Zanjan, Iran (1.117 mSv.y-1), Malaysia (0.782 mSv.y-1), Karnataka, India (0.75 mSv.y-1), Pakistan (0.92 mSv.y-1), and Abuja, Nigeria (0.914 mSv.y-1) [4, 6, 34-36].
The lifetime cancer risks were computed based on the AED values, and the results are presented in Table 1 and Figure 5. This was done so that the radiological risk could be evaluated. The lifetime risk of cancer in all of the residential dwellings ranges from 2.762×10-3 to 5.212×10-3 , with an average value of 3.74×10-3. Notably, these values are greater than the global average of ELCR, which is 0.29×10-3 [10], it needs further investigation for confirmation. One may draw the conclusion that a lifetime in such an environment significantly increases the likelihood of developing cancer.
Fig. 5. Estimated lifetime cancer risk at selected locations
Discussion
4. Conclusions
The current investigation quantified the natural indoor and outdoor background gamma radiation levels in residential locations across Shaqlawa City. The results indicate that the measured absorbed dose rates, annual effective doses, and excess lifetime cancer risk are higher than the global average values, signifying a potential radiological health concern for the local inhabitants. This study delivers significant baseline data for the region and highlights the necessity for continuous environmental radiation monitoring. Further investigations, including radionuclide evaluation of soils, building materials, and indoor radon concentration, are suggested to better identify the sources of elevated exposure.
Further details
References
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Sardar Othman Wednesday, 30 September 2026 - 07:59 UTC
This research focuses on the Human Health effects occurred due to the affect of background gamma radiation in Shaqlawa District in Erbil City Kurdistan region of Iraq.