Opportunities and Challenges of Aqueous Tin Batteries for Future Energy Storage.

Authors

Kaiqiang Zhang, Haoning Xi, Shengtao Yang, Yuping Wu

Published in

Small (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). Pages e76373. Oct 18, 2026. Epub Oct 18, 2026.

Abstract

Aqueous tin batteries are promising because tin offers high volumetric capacity, sluggish hydrogen-evolution kinetics, relatively isotropic deposition, and two- or four-electron redox chemistry. However, dendrite-resistant growth alone does not ensure reversibility. Hydrolysis, oxygen-induced oxidation, corrosion, kinetic asymmetry, soluble Sn²⁺ intermediates, incomplete stripping, particle detachment, pore blockage, and crossover can all disrupt the tin redox cycle. This review summarizes the fundamental chemistry of acidic Sn²⁺/Sn and alkaline Sn⁴⁺/Sn²⁺/Sn systems and examines the conditional advantages, coupled failure mechanisms, materials strategies, and chemical compatibility of representative full cells. It also proposes practical benchmarking criteria based on tin inventory conservation, species confinement, electrochemical recoverability, and realistic utilization conditions to distinguish genuine reversibility from performance masked by shallow cycling, excess tin inventory, or large electrolyte volumes. Future progress requires coordinated control of tin speciation, deposition, intermediate confinement, charge-carrier transport, and cathode compatibility. The key objective is to keep every tin species spatially confined and electrochemically recoverable throughout deep, prolonged cycling.

PMID:
42893606
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 19 Oct 2026.

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