Authors
Jinxia Ding, Jiahui Chen, Jiahui Bao, Jieyu Lin, Lulu Jia, Penghui Hu, Xiaotong Liu, Junhua Jiang, Junfeng Diao
Published in
Frontiers in psychology. Volume 17. Pages 1867009. Epub Oct 28, 2026.
Abstract
Level-2 visual perspective taking (VPT-2) reflects children's ability to understand others' visual experiences. However, the effects of viewing angle and task materials on 4-year-olds' performance remain unclear.
Using a picture-taking ("photographer") task, this study examined the effects of test tool and rotation angle, as well as egocentric error patterns, among 163 four-year-old children from Hainan, China. A 2 (test tool: Lego figurines vs. geometric solids) × 3 (rotation angle: 0°, 90°, 180°) within-subjects design was used. The formal test comprised 18 four-alternative trials, with three trials in each Tool × Angle condition; each correct response scored 1 and each incorrect response scored 0. Performance was assessed using raw correct scores and the proportions of egocentric errors.
Rotation angle significantly affected performance in a nonmonotonic pattern: raw correct scores were highest at 0°, followed by 180°, and lowest at 90°. The main effect of test tool was significant, with higher raw correct scores in the Lego figurine condition than in the geometric solids condition. The Tool × Angle interaction for raw correct scores was not significant. The proportions of egocentric errors showed significant main effects of test tool and rotation angle, as well as a significant Tool × Angle interaction. Egocentric errors were most pronounced in the geometric solids condition at 180°. Supplementary analyses revealed no significant sex main effect or sex-related interactions.
These findings indicate that 4-year-olds' VPT-2 performance varies across rotation angles and test materials. Performance differences between material conditions may be associated with differences in task structure, stimulus discriminability, social cues, and spatial-relational judgment demands, whose independent contributions could not be isolated in this study. Because the analyses relied on raw correct scores and error-type data, the findings should be interpreted as differences in behavioral performance rather than direct evidence about processing strategies or cognitive mechanisms.
PMID:
43016416
Bibliographic data and abstract were imported from PubMed on 12 Nov 2026.
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